diff --git a/egs/librispeech/ASR/conformer_ctc/train.py b/egs/librispeech/ASR/conformer_ctc/train.py
new file mode 100755
index 000000000..118e7e717
--- /dev/null
+++ b/egs/librispeech/ASR/conformer_ctc/train.py
@@ -0,0 +1,602 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env python3
+
+# This is just at the very beginning ...
+
+import argparse
+import logging
+from pathlib import Path
+from shutil import copyfile
+from typing import Optional
+
+import k2
+import torch
+import torch.distributed as dist
+import torch.multiprocessing as mp
+import torch.nn as nn
+import torch.optim as optim
+from conformer import Conformer
+from transformer import Noam
+
+from lhotse.utils import fix_random_seed
+from torch.nn.parallel import DistributedDataParallel as DDP
+from torch.nn.utils import clip_grad_value_
+from torch.optim.lr_scheduler import StepLR
+from torch.utils.tensorboard import SummaryWriter
+
+from icefall.checkpoint import load_checkpoint
+from icefall.checkpoint import save_checkpoint as save_checkpoint_impl
+from icefall.dataset.librispeech import LibriSpeechAsrDataModule
+from icefall.dist import cleanup_dist, setup_dist
+from icefall.bpe_graph_compiler import BpeCtcTrainingGraphCompiler
+from icefall.lexicon import Lexicon
+from icefall.utils import (
+    AttributeDict,
+    encode_supervisions,
+    setup_logger,
+    str2bool,
+)
+
+
+def get_parser():
+    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
+        formatter_class=argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter
+    )
+
+    parser.add_argument(
+        "--world-size",
+        type=int,
+        default=1,
+        help="Number of GPUs for DDP training.",
+    )
+
+    parser.add_argument(
+        "--master-port",
+        type=int,
+        default=12354,
+        help="Master port to use for DDP training.",
+    )
+
+    parser.add_argument(
+        "--tensorboard",
+        type=str2bool,
+        default=True,
+        help="Should various information be logged in tensorboard.",
+    )
+
+    # TODO: add extra arguments and support DDP training.
+    # Currently, only single GPU training is implemented. Will add
+    # DDP training once single GPU training is finished.
+    return parser
+
+
+def get_params() -> AttributeDict:
+    """Return a dict containing training parameters.
+
+    All training related parameters that are not passed from the commandline
+    is saved in the variable `params`.
+
+    Commandline options are merged into `params` after they are parsed, so
+    you can also access them via `params`.
+
+    Explanation of options saved in `params`:
+
+        - exp_dir: It specifies the directory where all training related
+                   files, e.g., checkpoints, log, etc, are saved
+
+        - lang_dir: It contains language related input files such as
+                    "lexicon.txt"
+
+        - lr: It specifies the initial learning rate
+
+        - feature_dim: The model input dim. It has to match the one used
+                       in computing features.
+
+        - weight_decay:  The weight_decay for the optimizer.
+
+        - subsampling_factor:  The subsampling factor for the model.
+
+        - start_epoch:  If it is not zero, load checkpoint `start_epoch-1`
+                        and continue training from that checkpoint.
+
+        - num_epochs:  Number of epochs to train.
+
+        - best_train_loss: Best training loss so far. It is used to select
+                           the model that has the lowest training loss. It is
+                           updated during the training.
+
+        - best_valid_loss: Best validation loss so far. It is used to select
+                           the model that has the lowest validation loss. It is
+                           updated during the training.
+
+        - best_train_epoch: It is the epoch that has the best training loss.
+
+        - best_valid_epoch: It is the epoch that has the best validation loss.
+
+        - batch_idx_train: Used to writing statistics to tensorboard. It
+                           contains number of batches trained so far across
+                           epochs.
+
+        - log_interval:  Print training loss if batch_idx % log_interval` is 0
+
+        - valid_interval:  Run validation if batch_idx % valid_interval` is 0
+
+        - beam_size: It is used in k2.ctc_loss
+
+        - reduction: It is used in k2.ctc_loss
+
+        - use_double_scores: It is used in k2.ctc_loss
+    """
+    params = AttributeDict(
+        {
+            "exp_dir": Path("conformer_ctc/exp"),
+            "lang_dir": Path("data/lang/bpe"),
+            "feature_dim": 80,
+            "weight_decay": 0.0,
+            "subsampling_factor": 4,
+            "start_epoch": 0,
+            "num_epochs": 10,
+            "best_train_loss": float("inf"),
+            "best_valid_loss": float("inf"),
+            "best_train_epoch": -1,
+            "best_valid_epoch": -1,
+            "batch_idx_train": 0,
+            "log_interval": 10,
+            "valid_interval": 1000,
+            "beam_size": 10,
+            "reduction": "sum",
+            "use_double_scores": True,
+            #
+            "accum_grad": 1,
+            "att_rate": 0.7,
+            "attention_dim": 512,
+            "nhead": 8,
+            "num_decoder_layers": 6,
+            "is_espnet_structure": True,
+            "mmi_loss": False,
+            "use_feat_batchnorm": True,
+            "lr_factor": 5.0,
+            "warm_step": 80000,
+        }
+    )
+
+    return params
+
+
+def load_checkpoint_if_available(
+    params: AttributeDict,
+    model: nn.Module,
+    optimizer: Optional[torch.optim.Optimizer] = None,
+    scheduler: Optional[torch.optim.lr_scheduler._LRScheduler] = None,
+) -> None:
+    """Load checkpoint from file.
+
+    If params.start_epoch is positive, it will load the checkpoint from
+    `params.start_epoch - 1`. Otherwise, this function does nothing.
+
+    Apart from loading state dict for `model`, `optimizer` and `scheduler`,
+    it also updates `best_train_epoch`, `best_train_loss`, `best_valid_epoch`,
+    and `best_valid_loss` in `params`.
+
+    Args:
+      params:
+        The return value of :func:`get_params`.
+      model:
+        The training model.
+      optimizer:
+        The optimizer that we are using.
+      scheduler:
+        The learning rate scheduler we are using.
+    Returns:
+      Return None.
+    """
+    if params.start_epoch <= 0:
+        return
+
+    filename = params.exp_dir / f"epoch-{params.start_epoch-1}.pt"
+    saved_params = load_checkpoint(
+        filename, model=model, optimizer=optimizer, scheduler=scheduler,
+    )
+
+    keys = [
+        "best_train_epoch",
+        "best_valid_epoch",
+        "batch_idx_train",
+        "best_train_loss",
+        "best_valid_loss",
+    ]
+    for k in keys:
+        params[k] = saved_params[k]
+
+    return saved_params
+
+
+def save_checkpoint(
+    params: AttributeDict,
+    model: nn.Module,
+    optimizer: Optional[torch.optim.Optimizer] = None,
+    scheduler: Optional[torch.optim.lr_scheduler._LRScheduler] = None,
+    rank: int = 0,
+) -> None:
+    """Save model, optimizer, scheduler and training stats to file.
+
+    Args:
+      params:
+        It is returned by :func:`get_params`.
+      model:
+        The training model.
+    """
+    if rank != 0:
+        return
+    filename = params.exp_dir / f"epoch-{params.cur_epoch}.pt"
+    save_checkpoint_impl(
+        filename=filename,
+        model=model,
+        params=params,
+        optimizer=optimizer,
+        scheduler=scheduler,
+        rank=rank,
+    )
+
+    if params.best_train_epoch == params.cur_epoch:
+        best_train_filename = params.exp_dir / "best-train-loss.pt"
+        copyfile(src=filename, dst=best_train_filename)
+
+    if params.best_valid_epoch == params.cur_epoch:
+        best_valid_filename = params.exp_dir / "best-valid-loss.pt"
+        copyfile(src=filename, dst=best_valid_filename)
+
+
+def compute_loss(
+    params: AttributeDict,
+    model: nn.Module,
+    batch: dict,
+    graph_compiler: BpeCtcTrainingGraphCompiler,
+    is_training: bool,
+):
+    """
+    Compute CTC loss given the model and its inputs.
+
+    Args:
+      params:
+        Parameters for training. See :func:`get_params`.
+      model:
+        The model for training. It is an instance of Conformer in our case.
+      batch:
+        A batch of data. See `lhotse.dataset.K2SpeechRecognitionDataset()`
+        for the content in it.
+      graph_compiler:
+        It is used to build a decoding graph from a ctc topo and training
+        transcript. The training transcript is contained in the given `batch`,
+        while the ctc topo is built when this compiler is instantiated.
+      is_training:
+        True for training. False for validation. When it is True, this
+        function enables autograd during computation; when it is False, it
+        disables autograd.
+    """
+    device = graph_compiler.device
+    feature = batch["inputs"]
+    # at entry, feature is [N, T, C]
+    feature = feature.permute(0, 2, 1)  # now feature is [N, C, T]
+    assert feature.ndim == 3
+    feature = feature.to(device)
+
+    supervisions = batch["supervisions"]
+    with torch.set_grad_enabled(is_training):
+        nnet_output, encoder_memory, memory_mask = model(feature, supervisions)
+        # nnet_output is [N, C, T]
+        nnet_output = nnet_output.permute(0, 2, 1)  # [N, C, T] -> [N, T, C]
+
+    # NOTE: We need `encode_supervisions` to sort sequences with
+    # different duration in decreasing order, required by
+    # `k2.intersect_dense` called in `k2.ctc_loss`
+    supervision_segments, texts = encode_supervisions(
+        supervisions, subsampling_factor=params.subsampling_factor
+    )
+
+    token_ids = graph_compiler.texts_to_ids(texts)
+
+    decoding_graph = graph_compiler.compile(token_ids)
+
+    dense_fsa_vec = k2.DenseFsaVec(
+        nnet_output,
+        supervision_segments,
+        allow_truncate=params.subsampling_factor - 1,
+    )
+
+    ctc_loss = k2.ctc_loss(
+        decoding_graph=decoding_graph,
+        dense_fsa_vec=dense_fsa_vec,
+        output_beam=params.beam_size,
+        reduction=params.reduction,
+        use_double_scores=params.use_double_scores,
+    )
+
+    if params.att_rate != 0.0:
+        att_loss = model.decoder_forward(
+            encoder_memory,
+            memory_mask,
+            token_ids=token_ids,
+            sos_id=graph_compiler.sos_id,
+            eos_id=graph_compiler.eos_id,
+        )
+        loss = (1.0 - params.att_rate) * ctc_loss + params.att_rate * att_loss
+    else:
+        loss = ctc_loss
+
+    # train_frames and valid_frames are used for printing.
+    if is_training:
+        params.train_frames = supervision_segments[:, 2].sum().item()
+    else:
+        params.valid_frames = supervision_segments[:, 2].sum().item()
+
+    assert loss.requires_grad == is_training
+
+    return loss
+
+
+def compute_validation_loss(
+    params: AttributeDict,
+    model: nn.Module,
+    graph_compiler: BpeCtcTrainingGraphCompiler,
+    valid_dl: torch.utils.data.DataLoader,
+    world_size: int = 1,
+) -> None:
+    """Run the validation process. The validation loss
+    is saved in `params.valid_loss`.
+    """
+    model.eval()
+
+    tot_loss = 0.0
+    tot_frames = 0.0
+    for batch_idx, batch in enumerate(valid_dl):
+        loss = compute_loss(
+            params=params,
+            model=model,
+            batch=batch,
+            graph_compiler=graph_compiler,
+            is_training=False,
+        )
+        assert loss.requires_grad is False
+
+        loss_cpu = loss.detach().cpu().item()
+        tot_loss += loss_cpu
+        tot_frames += params.valid_frames
+
+    if world_size > 1:
+        s = torch.tensor([tot_loss, tot_frames], device=loss.device)
+        dist.all_reduce(s, op=dist.ReduceOp.SUM)
+        s = s.cpu().tolist()
+        tot_loss = s[0]
+        tot_frames = s[1]
+
+    params.valid_loss = tot_loss / tot_frames
+
+    if params.valid_loss < params.best_valid_loss:
+        params.best_valid_epoch = params.cur_epoch
+        params.best_valid_loss = params.valid_loss
+
+
+def train_one_epoch(
+    params: AttributeDict,
+    model: nn.Module,
+    optimizer: torch.optim.Optimizer,
+    graph_compiler: BpeCtcTrainingGraphCompiler,
+    train_dl: torch.utils.data.DataLoader,
+    valid_dl: torch.utils.data.DataLoader,
+    tb_writer: Optional[SummaryWriter] = None,
+    world_size: int = 1,
+) -> None:
+    """Train the model for one epoch.
+
+    The training loss from the mean of all frames is saved in
+    `params.train_loss`. It runs the validation process every
+    `params.valid_interval` batches.
+
+    Args:
+      params:
+        It is returned by :func:`get_params`.
+      model:
+        The model for training.
+      optimizer:
+        The optimizer we are using.
+      graph_compiler:
+        It is used to convert transcripts to FSAs.
+      train_dl:
+        Dataloader for the training dataset.
+      valid_dl:
+        Dataloader for the validation dataset.
+      tb_writer:
+        Writer to write log messages to tensorboard.
+      world_size:
+        Number of nodes in DDP training. If it is 1, DDP is disabled.
+    """
+    model.train()
+
+    tot_loss = 0.0  # sum of losses over all batches
+    tot_frames = 0.0  # sum of frames over all batches
+    for batch_idx, batch in enumerate(train_dl):
+        params.batch_idx_train += 1
+        batch_size = len(batch["supervisions"]["text"])
+
+        loss = compute_loss(
+            params=params,
+            model=model,
+            batch=batch,
+            graph_compiler=graph_compiler,
+            is_training=True,
+        )
+
+        # NOTE: We use reduction==sum and loss is computed over utterances
+        # in the batch and there is no normalization to it so far.
+
+        optimizer.zero_grad()
+        loss.backward()
+        clip_grad_value_(model.parameters(), 5.0)
+        optimizer.step()
+
+        loss_cpu = loss.detach().cpu().item()
+
+        tot_frames += params.train_frames
+        tot_loss += loss_cpu
+        tot_avg_loss = tot_loss / tot_frames
+
+        if batch_idx % params.log_interval == 0:
+            logging.info(
+                f"Epoch {params.cur_epoch}, batch {batch_idx}, "
+                f"batch avg loss {loss_cpu/params.train_frames:.4f}, "
+                f"total avg loss: {tot_avg_loss:.4f}, "
+                f"batch size: {batch_size}"
+            )
+
+        if batch_idx > 0 and batch_idx % params.valid_interval == 0:
+            compute_validation_loss(
+                params=params,
+                model=model,
+                graph_compiler=graph_compiler,
+                valid_dl=valid_dl,
+                world_size=world_size,
+            )
+            model.train()
+            logging.info(
+                f"Epoch {params.cur_epoch}, valid loss {params.valid_loss:.4f},"
+                f" best valid loss: {params.best_valid_loss:.4f} "
+                f"best valid epoch: {params.best_valid_epoch}"
+            )
+
+    params.train_loss = tot_loss / tot_frames
+
+    if params.train_loss < params.best_train_loss:
+        params.best_train_epoch = params.cur_epoch
+        params.best_train_loss = params.train_loss
+
+
+def run(rank, world_size, args):
+    """
+    Args:
+      rank:
+        It is a value between 0 and `world_size-1`, which is
+        passed automatically by `mp.spawn()` in :func:`main`.
+        The node with rank 0 is responsible for saving checkpoint.
+      world_size:
+        Number of GPUs for DDP training.
+      args:
+        The return value of get_parser().parse_args()
+    """
+    params = get_params()
+    params.update(vars(args))
+
+    fix_random_seed(42)
+    if world_size > 1:
+        setup_dist(rank, world_size, params.master_port)
+
+    setup_logger(f"{params.exp_dir}/log/log-train")
+    logging.info("Training started")
+    logging.info(params)
+
+    if args.tensorboard and rank == 0:
+        tb_writer = SummaryWriter(log_dir=f"{params.exp_dir}/tensorboard")
+    else:
+        tb_writer = None
+
+    lexicon = Lexicon(params.lang_dir)
+    max_token_id = max(lexicon.tokens)
+    num_classes = max_token_id + 1  # +1 for the blank
+
+    device = torch.device("cpu")
+    if torch.cuda.is_available():
+        device = torch.device("cuda", rank)
+
+    graph_compiler = BpeCtcTrainingGraphCompiler(
+        params.lang_dir,
+        device=device,
+        sos_token="<sos/eos>",
+        eos_token="<sos/eos>",
+    )
+
+    logging.info("About to create model")
+    model = Conformer(
+        num_features=params.feature_dim,
+        nhead=params.nhead,
+        d_model=params.attention_dim,
+        num_classes=num_classes,
+        subsampling_factor=params.subsampling_factor,
+        num_decoder_layers=params.num_decoder_layers,
+        vgg_frontend=False,
+        is_espnet_structure=params.is_espnet_structure,
+        mmi_loss=params.mmi_loss,
+        use_feat_batchnorm=params.use_feat_batchnorm,
+    )
+
+    checkpoints = load_checkpoint_if_available(params=params, model=model)
+
+    model.to(device)
+    if world_size > 1:
+        model = DDP(model, device_ids=[rank])
+
+    optimizer = Noam(
+        model.parameters(),
+        model_size=params.attention_dim,
+        factor=params.lr_factor,
+        warm_step=params.warm_step,
+        weight_decay=params.weight_decay,
+    )
+
+    if checkpoints:
+        optimizer.load_state_dict(checkpoints["optimizer"])
+
+    librispeech = LibriSpeechAsrDataModule(args)
+    train_dl = librispeech.train_dataloaders()
+    valid_dl = librispeech.valid_dataloaders()
+
+    for epoch in range(params.start_epoch, params.num_epochs):
+        train_dl.sampler.set_epoch(epoch)
+
+        cur_lr = optimizer._rate
+        if tb_writer is not None:
+            tb_writer.add_scalar(
+                "train/learning_rate", cur_lr, params.batch_idx_train
+            )
+            tb_writer.add_scalar("train/epoch", epoch, params.batch_idx_train)
+
+        if rank == 0:
+            logging.info("epoch {}, learning rate {}".format(epoch, cur_lr))
+
+        params.cur_epoch = epoch
+
+        train_one_epoch(
+            params=params,
+            model=model,
+            optimizer=optimizer,
+            graph_compiler=graph_compiler,
+            train_dl=train_dl,
+            valid_dl=valid_dl,
+            tb_writer=tb_writer,
+            world_size=world_size,
+        )
+
+        save_checkpoint(
+            params=params, model=model, optimizer=optimizer, rank=rank,
+        )
+
+    logging.info("Done!")
+
+    if world_size > 1:
+        torch.distributed.barrier()
+        cleanup_dist()
+
+
+def main():
+    parser = get_parser()
+    LibriSpeechAsrDataModule.add_arguments(parser)
+    args = parser.parse_args()
+
+    world_size = args.world_size
+    assert world_size >= 1
+    if world_size > 1:
+        mp.spawn(run, args=(world_size, args), nprocs=world_size, join=True)
+    else:
+        run(rank=0, world_size=1, args=args)
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    main()
diff --git a/egs/librispeech/ASR/conformer_ctc/transformer.py b/egs/librispeech/ASR/conformer_ctc/transformer.py
index fc748a252..1df16e346 100644
--- a/egs/librispeech/ASR/conformer_ctc/transformer.py
+++ b/egs/librispeech/ASR/conformer_ctc/transformer.py
@@ -189,6 +189,8 @@ class Transformer(nn.Module):
         supervision: Supervisions = None,
         graph_compiler: object = None,
         token_ids: List[int] = None,
+        sos_id: Optional[int] = None,
+        eos_id: Optional[int] = None,
     ) -> Tensor:
         """
         Args:
@@ -197,6 +199,8 @@ class Transformer(nn.Module):
             supervision: Supervison in lhotse format, get from batch['supervisions']
             graph_compiler: use graph_compiler.L_inv (Its labels are words, while its aux_labels are phones)
                             , graph_compiler.words and graph_compiler.oov
+            sos_id: sos token id
+            eos_id: eos token id
 
         Returns:
             Tensor: Decoder loss.
@@ -206,18 +210,9 @@ class Transformer(nn.Module):
                 supervision, graph_compiler.lexicon.words, graph_compiler.oov
             )
             ys_in_pad, ys_out_pad = add_sos_eos(
-                batch_text,
-                graph_compiler.L_inv,
-                self.decoder_num_class - 1,
-                self.decoder_num_class - 1,
+                batch_text, graph_compiler.L_inv, sos_id, eos_id,
             )
         elif token_ids is not None:
-            # speical token ids:
-            # <blank> 0
-            # <UNK> 1
-            # <sos/eos> self.decoder_num_class - 1
-            sos_id = self.decoder_num_class - 1
-            eos_id = self.decoder_num_class - 1
             _sos = torch.tensor([sos_id])
             _eos = torch.tensor([eos_id])
             ys_in = [
@@ -259,7 +254,12 @@ class Transformer(nn.Module):
         return decoder_loss
 
     def decoder_nll(
-        self, x: Tensor, encoder_mask: Tensor, token_ids: List[List[int]] = None
+        self,
+        x: Tensor,
+        encoder_mask: Tensor,
+        token_ids: List[List[int]],
+        sos_id: int,
+        eos_id: int,
     ) -> Tensor:
         """
         Args:
@@ -273,12 +273,6 @@ class Transformer(nn.Module):
         # The common part between this fuction and decoder_forward could be
         # extracted as a seperated function.
         if token_ids is not None:
-            # speical token ids:
-            # <blank> 0
-            # <UNK> 1
-            # <sos/eos> self.decoder_num_class - 1
-            sos_id = self.decoder_num_class - 1
-            eos_id = self.decoder_num_class - 1
             _sos = torch.tensor([sos_id])
             _eos = torch.tensor([eos_id])
             ys_in = [
@@ -866,7 +860,8 @@ class LabelSmoothingLoss(nn.Module):
             target = target.masked_fill(ignore, 0)  # avoid -1 index
             true_dist.scatter_(1, target.unsqueeze(1), self.confidence)
         kl = self.criterion(torch.log_softmax(x, dim=1), true_dist)
-        denom = total if self.normalize_length else batch_size
+        #  denom = total if self.normalize_length else batch_size
+        denom = total if self.normalize_length else 1
         return kl.masked_fill(ignore.unsqueeze(1), 0).sum() / denom
 
 
@@ -983,8 +978,8 @@ def generate_square_subsequent_mask(sz: int) -> Tensor:
 def add_sos_eos(
     ys: List[List[int]],
     lexicon: k2.Fsa,
-    sos: int,
-    eos: int,
+    sos_id: int,
+    eos_id: int,
     ignore_id: int = -1,
 ) -> Tuple[Tensor, Tensor]:
     """Add <sos> and <eos> labels.
@@ -992,8 +987,8 @@ def add_sos_eos(
     Args:
         ys: batch of unpadded target sequences
         lexicon: Its labels are words, while its aux_labels are phones.
-        sos: index of <sos>
-        eos: index of <eos>
+        sos_id: index of <sos>
+        eos_id: index of <eos>
         ignore_id: index of padding
 
     Returns:
@@ -1001,8 +996,8 @@ def add_sos_eos(
         Tensor: Output of transformer decoder. padded tensor of dimention (batch_size, max_length).
     """
 
-    _sos = torch.tensor([sos])
-    _eos = torch.tensor([eos])
+    _sos = torch.tensor([sos_id])
+    _eos = torch.tensor([eos_id])
     ys = get_hierarchical_targets(ys, lexicon)
     ys_in = [torch.cat([_sos, y], dim=0) for y in ys]
     ys_out = [torch.cat([y, _eos], dim=0) for y in ys]
diff --git a/egs/librispeech/ASR/local/compile_hlg.py b/egs/librispeech/ASR/local/compile_hlg.py
index b962be552..605d72dae 100755
--- a/egs/librispeech/ASR/local/compile_hlg.py
+++ b/egs/librispeech/ASR/local/compile_hlg.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 """
 This script compiles HLG from
 
-    - H, the ctc topology, built from phones contained in lexicon.txt
+    - H, the ctc topology, built from tokens contained in lexicon.txt
     - L, the lexicon, built from L_disambig.pt
 
         Caution: We use a lexicon that contains disambiguation symbols
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ This script compiles HLG from
 The generated HLG is saved in data/lm/HLG.pt (phone based)
 or data/lm/HLG_bpe.pt (BPE based)
 """
+import logging
 from pathlib import Path
 
 import k2
@@ -32,44 +33,44 @@ def compile_HLG(lang_dir: str) -> k2.Fsa:
     """
     lexicon = Lexicon(lang_dir)
     max_token_id = max(lexicon.tokens)
-    print(f"Building ctc_topo. max_token_id: {max_token_id}")
+    logging.info(f"Building ctc_topo. max_token_id: {max_token_id}")
     H = k2.ctc_topo(max_token_id)
     L = k2.Fsa.from_dict(torch.load(f"{lang_dir}/L_disambig.pt"))
 
     if Path("data/lm/G_3_gram.pt").is_file():
-        print("Loading pre-compiled G_3_gram")
+        logging.info("Loading pre-compiled G_3_gram")
         d = torch.load("data/lm/G_3_gram.pt")
         G = k2.Fsa.from_dict(d)
     else:
-        print("Loading G_3_gram.fst.txt")
+        logging.info("Loading G_3_gram.fst.txt")
         with open("data/lm/G_3_gram.fst.txt") as f:
             G = k2.Fsa.from_openfst(f.read(), acceptor=False)
             torch.save(G.as_dict(), "G_3_gram.pt")
 
-    first_token_disambig_id = lexicon.phones["#0"]
-    first_word_disambig_id = lexicon.words["#0"]
+    first_token_disambig_id = lexicon.token_table["#0"]
+    first_word_disambig_id = lexicon.word_table["#0"]
 
     L = k2.arc_sort(L)
     G = k2.arc_sort(G)
 
-    print("Intersecting L and G")
+    logging.info("Intersecting L and G")
     LG = k2.compose(L, G)
-    print(f"LG shape: {LG.shape}")
+    logging.info(f"LG shape: {LG.shape}")
 
-    print("Connecting LG")
+    logging.info("Connecting LG")
     LG = k2.connect(LG)
-    print(f"LG shape after k2.connect: {LG.shape}")
+    logging.info(f"LG shape after k2.connect: {LG.shape}")
 
-    print(type(LG.aux_labels))
-    print("Determinizing LG")
+    logging.info(type(LG.aux_labels))
+    logging.info("Determinizing LG")
 
     LG = k2.determinize(LG)
-    print(type(LG.aux_labels))
+    logging.info(type(LG.aux_labels))
 
-    print("Connecting LG after k2.determinize")
+    logging.info("Connecting LG after k2.determinize")
     LG = k2.connect(LG)
 
-    print("Removing disambiguation symbols on LG")
+    logging.info("Removing disambiguation symbols on LG")
 
     LG.labels[LG.labels >= first_token_disambig_id] = 0
 
@@ -77,27 +78,27 @@ def compile_HLG(lang_dir: str) -> k2.Fsa:
     LG.aux_labels.values()[LG.aux_labels.values() >= first_word_disambig_id] = 0
 
     LG = k2.remove_epsilon(LG)
-    print(f"LG shape after k2.remove_epsilon: {LG.shape}")
+    logging.info(f"LG shape after k2.remove_epsilon: {LG.shape}")
 
     LG = k2.connect(LG)
     LG.aux_labels = k2.ragged.remove_values_eq(LG.aux_labels, 0)
 
-    print("Arc sorting LG")
+    logging.info("Arc sorting LG")
     LG = k2.arc_sort(LG)
 
-    print("Composing H and LG")
+    logging.info("Composing H and LG")
     # CAUTION: The name of the inner_labels is fixed
     # to `tokens`. If you want to change it, please
     # also change other places in icefall that are using
     # it.
     HLG = k2.compose(H, LG, inner_labels="tokens")
 
-    print("Connecting LG")
+    logging.info("Connecting LG")
     HLG = k2.connect(HLG)
 
-    print("Arc sorting LG")
+    logging.info("Arc sorting LG")
     HLG = k2.arc_sort(HLG)
-    print(f"HLG.shape: {HLG.shape}")
+    logging.info(f"HLG.shape: {HLG.shape}")
 
     return HLG
 
@@ -106,10 +107,10 @@ def phone_based_HLG():
     if Path("data/lm/HLG.pt").is_file():
         return
 
-    print("Compiling phone based HLG")
+    logging.info("Compiling phone based HLG")
     HLG = compile_HLG("data/lang")
 
-    print("Saving HLG.pt to data/lm")
+    logging.info("Saving HLG.pt to data/lm")
     torch.save(HLG.as_dict(), "data/lm/HLG.pt")
 
 
@@ -117,9 +118,9 @@ def bpe_based_HLG():
     if Path("data/lm/HLG_bpe.pt").is_file():
         return
 
-    print("Compiling BPE based HLG")
+    logging.info("Compiling BPE based HLG")
     HLG = compile_HLG("data/lang/bpe")
-    print("Saving HLG_bpe.pt to data/lm")
+    logging.info("Saving HLG_bpe.pt to data/lm")
     torch.save(HLG.as_dict(), "data/lm/HLG_bpe.pt")
 
 
@@ -129,4 +130,10 @@ def main():
 
 
 if __name__ == "__main__":
+    formatter = (
+        "%(asctime)s %(levelname)s [%(filename)s:%(lineno)d] %(message)s"
+    )
+
+    logging.basicConfig(format=formatter, level=logging.INFO)
+
     main()
diff --git a/egs/librispeech/ASR/local/prepare_lang.py b/egs/librispeech/ASR/local/prepare_lang.py
index 9945a5006..b9d13f5bb 100755
--- a/egs/librispeech/ASR/local/prepare_lang.py
+++ b/egs/librispeech/ASR/local/prepare_lang.py
@@ -4,13 +4,13 @@
 
 """
 This script takes as input a lexicon file "data/lang/lexicon.txt"
-consisting of words and phones and does the following:
+consisting of words and tokens (i.e., phones) and does the following:
 
 1. Add disambiguation symbols to the lexicon and generate lexicon_disambig.txt
 
-2. Generate phones.txt, the phones table mapping a phone to a unique integer.
+2. Generate tokens.txt, the token table mapping a token to a unique integer.
 
-3. Generate words.txt, the words table mapping a word to a unique integer.
+3. Generate words.txt, the word table mapping a word to a unique integer.
 
 4. Generate L.pt, in k2 format. It can be loaded by
 
@@ -29,62 +29,11 @@ from typing import Any, Dict, List, Tuple
 import k2
 import torch
 
+from icefall.lexicon import read_lexicon, write_lexicon
+
 Lexicon = List[Tuple[str, List[str]]]
 
 
-def read_lexicon(filename: str) -> Lexicon:
-    """Read a lexicon.txt in `filename`.
-
-    Each line in the lexicon contains "word p1 p2 p3 ...".
-    That is, the first field is a word and the remaining
-    fields are phones. Fields are separated by space(s).
-
-    Args:
-      filename:
-        Path to the lexicon.txt
-
-    Returns:
-      A list of tuples., e.g., [('w', ['p1', 'p2']), ('w1', ['p3, 'p4'])]
-    """
-    ans = []
-
-    with open(filename, "r", encoding="utf-8") as f:
-        whitespace = re.compile("[ \t]+")
-        for line in f:
-            a = whitespace.split(line.strip(" \t\r\n"))
-            if len(a) == 0:
-                continue
-
-            if len(a) < 2:
-                print(f"Found bad line {line} in lexicon file {filename}")
-                print("Every line is expected to contain at least 2 fields")
-                sys.exit(1)
-            word = a[0]
-            if word == "<eps>":
-                print(f"Found bad line {line} in lexicon file {filename}")
-                print("<eps> should not be a valid word")
-                sys.exit(1)
-
-            prons = a[1:]
-            ans.append((word, prons))
-
-    return ans
-
-
-def write_lexicon(filename: str, lexicon: Lexicon) -> None:
-    """Write a lexicon to a file.
-
-    Args:
-      filename:
-        Path to the lexicon file to be generated.
-      lexicon:
-        It can be the return value of :func:`read_lexicon`.
-    """
-    with open(filename, "w", encoding="utf-8") as f:
-        for word, prons in lexicon:
-            f.write(f"{word} {' '.join(prons)}\n")
-
-
 def write_mapping(filename: str, sym2id: Dict[str, int]) -> None:
     """Write a symbol to ID mapping to a file.
 
@@ -105,18 +54,18 @@ def write_mapping(filename: str, sym2id: Dict[str, int]) -> None:
             f.write(f"{sym} {i}\n")
 
 
-def get_phones(lexicon: Lexicon) -> List[str]:
-    """Get phones from a lexicon.
+def get_tokens(lexicon: Lexicon) -> List[str]:
+    """Get tokens from a lexicon.
 
     Args:
       lexicon:
         It is the return value of :func:`read_lexicon`.
     Returns:
-      Return a list of unique phones.
+      Return a list of unique tokens.
     """
     ans = set()
-    for _, prons in lexicon:
-        ans.update(prons)
+    for _, tokens in lexicon:
+        ans.update(tokens)
     sorted_ans = sorted(list(ans))
     return sorted_ans
 
@@ -138,8 +87,8 @@ def get_words(lexicon: Lexicon) -> List[str]:
 
 
 def add_disambig_symbols(lexicon: Lexicon) -> Tuple[Lexicon, int]:
-    """It adds pseudo-phone disambiguation symbols #1, #2 and so on
-    at the ends of phones to ensure that all pronunciations are different,
+    """It adds pseudo-token disambiguation symbols #1, #2 and so on
+    at the ends of tokens to ensure that all pronunciations are different,
     and that none is a prefix of another.
 
     See also add_lex_disambig.pl from kaldi.
@@ -151,30 +100,30 @@ def add_disambig_symbols(lexicon: Lexicon) -> Tuple[Lexicon, int]:
       Return a tuple with two elements:
 
         - The output lexicon with disambiguation symbols
-        - The ID of the max disambiguation symbols that appears
+        - The ID of the max disambiguation symbol that appears
           in the lexicon
     """
 
-    # (1) Work out the count of each phone-sequence in the
+    # (1) Work out the count of each token-sequence in the
     # lexicon.
     count = defaultdict(int)
-    for _, prons in lexicon:
-        count[" ".join(prons)] += 1
+    for _, tokens in lexicon:
+        count[" ".join(tokens)] += 1
 
-    # (2) For each left sub-sequence of each phone-sequence, note down
+    # (2) For each left sub-sequence of each token-sequence, note down
     # that it exists (for identifying prefixes of longer strings).
     issubseq = defaultdict(int)
-    for _, prons in lexicon:
-        prons = prons.copy()
-        prons.pop()
-        while prons:
-            issubseq[" ".join(prons)] = 1
-            prons.pop()
+    for _, tokens in lexicon:
+        tokens = tokens.copy()
+        tokens.pop()
+        while tokens:
+            issubseq[" ".join(tokens)] = 1
+            tokens.pop()
 
     # (3) For each entry in the lexicon:
-    # if the phone sequence is unique and is not a
+    # if the token sequence is unique and is not a
     # prefix of another word, no disambig symbol.
-    # Else output #1, or #2, #3, ... if the same phone-seq
+    # Else output #1, or #2, #3, ... if the same token-seq
     # has already been assigned a disambig symbol.
     ans = []
 
@@ -183,14 +132,14 @@ def add_disambig_symbols(lexicon: Lexicon) -> Tuple[Lexicon, int]:
     max_disambig = first_allowed_disambig - 1
     last_used_disambig_symbol_of = defaultdict(int)
 
-    for word, prons in lexicon:
-        phnseq = " ".join(prons)
-        assert phnseq != ""
-        if issubseq[phnseq] == 0 and count[phnseq] == 1:
-            ans.append((word, prons))
+    for word, tokens in lexicon:
+        tokenseq = " ".join(tokens)
+        assert tokenseq != ""
+        if issubseq[tokenseq] == 0 and count[tokenseq] == 1:
+            ans.append((word, tokens))
             continue
 
-        cur_disambig = last_used_disambig_symbol_of[phnseq]
+        cur_disambig = last_used_disambig_symbol_of[tokenseq]
         if cur_disambig == 0:
             cur_disambig = first_allowed_disambig
         else:
@@ -198,9 +147,9 @@ def add_disambig_symbols(lexicon: Lexicon) -> Tuple[Lexicon, int]:
 
         if cur_disambig > max_disambig:
             max_disambig = cur_disambig
-        last_used_disambig_symbol_of[phnseq] = cur_disambig
-        phnseq += f" #{cur_disambig}"
-        ans.append((word, phnseq.split()))
+        last_used_disambig_symbol_of[tokenseq] = cur_disambig
+        tokenseq += f" #{cur_disambig}"
+        ans.append((word, tokenseq.split()))
     return ans, max_disambig
 
 
@@ -217,7 +166,7 @@ def generate_id_map(symbols: List[str]) -> Dict[str, int]:
 
 
 def add_self_loops(
-    arcs: List[List[Any]], disambig_phone: int, disambig_word: int
+    arcs: List[List[Any]], disambig_token: int, disambig_word: int
 ) -> List[List[Any]]:
     """Adds self-loops to states of an FST to propagate disambiguation symbols
     through it. They are added on each state with non-epsilon output symbols
@@ -228,12 +177,15 @@ def add_self_loops(
     This function uses k2 style FSTs and it does not need to add self-loops
     to the final state.
 
+    The input label of a self-loop is `disambig_token`, while the output
+    label is `disambig_word`.
+
     Args:
       arcs:
         A list-of-list. The sublist contains
         `[src_state, dest_state, label, aux_label, score]`
-      disambig_phone:
-        It is the phone ID of the symbol `#0`.
+      disambig_token:
+        It is the token ID of the symbol `#0`.
       disambig_word:
         It is the word ID of the symbol `#0`.
 
@@ -248,37 +200,38 @@ def add_self_loops(
 
     ans = []
     for s in states_needs_self_loops:
-        ans.append([s, s, disambig_phone, disambig_word, 0])
+        ans.append([s, s, disambig_token, disambig_word, 0])
 
     return arcs + ans
 
 
 def lexicon_to_fst(
     lexicon: Lexicon,
-    phone2id: Dict[str, int],
+    token2id: Dict[str, int],
     word2id: Dict[str, int],
-    sil_phone: str = "SIL",
+    sil_token: str = "SIL",
     sil_prob: float = 0.5,
     need_self_loops: bool = False,
 ) -> k2.Fsa:
     """Convert a lexicon to an FST (in k2 format) with optional silence at
-    the beginning and end of the word.
+    the beginning and end of each word.
 
     Args:
       lexicon:
         The input lexicon. See also :func:`read_lexicon`
-      phone2id:
-        A dict mapping phones to IDs.
+      token2id:
+        A dict mapping tokens to IDs.
       word2id:
         A dict mapping words to IDs.
-      sil_phone:
-        The silence phone.
+      sil_token:
+        The silence token.
       sil_prob:
         The probability for adding a silence at the beginning and end
         of the word.
       need_self_loops:
         If True, add self-loop to states with non-epsilon output symbols
-        on at least one arc out of the state.
+        on at least one arc out of the state. The input label for this
+        self loop is `token2id["#0"]` and the output label is `word2id["#0"]`.
     Returns:
       Return an instance of `k2.Fsa` representing the given lexicon.
     """
@@ -294,48 +247,44 @@ def lexicon_to_fst(
     next_state = 3  # the next un-allocated state, will be incremented as we go.
     arcs = []
 
-    assert phone2id["<eps>"] == 0
+    assert token2id["<eps>"] == 0
     assert word2id["<eps>"] == 0
 
     eps = 0
 
-    sil_phone = phone2id[sil_phone]
+    sil_token = token2id[sil_token]
 
     arcs.append([start_state, loop_state, eps, eps, no_sil_score])
     arcs.append([start_state, sil_state, eps, eps, sil_score])
-    arcs.append([sil_state, loop_state, sil_phone, eps, 0])
+    arcs.append([sil_state, loop_state, sil_token, eps, 0])
 
-    for word, prons in lexicon:
-        assert len(prons) > 0, f"{word} has no pronunciations"
+    for word, tokens in lexicon:
+        assert len(tokens) > 0, f"{word} has no pronunciations"
         cur_state = loop_state
 
         word = word2id[word]
-        prons = [phone2id[i] for i in prons]
+        tokens = [token2id[i] for i in tokens]
 
-        for i in range(len(prons) - 1):
-            if i == 0:
-                arcs.append([cur_state, next_state, prons[i], word, 0])
-            else:
-                arcs.append([cur_state, next_state, prons[i], eps, 0])
+        for i in range(len(tokens) - 1):
+            w = word if i == 0 else eps
+            arcs.append([cur_state, next_state, tokens[i], w, 0])
 
             cur_state = next_state
             next_state += 1
 
-        # now for the last phone of this word
+        # now for the last token of this word
         # It has two out-going arcs, one to the loop state,
         # the other one to the sil_state.
-        i = len(prons) - 1
+        i = len(tokens) - 1
         w = word if i == 0 else eps
-        arcs.append([cur_state, loop_state, prons[i], w, no_sil_score])
-        arcs.append([cur_state, sil_state, prons[i], w, sil_score])
+        arcs.append([cur_state, loop_state, tokens[i], w, no_sil_score])
+        arcs.append([cur_state, sil_state, tokens[i], w, sil_score])
 
     if need_self_loops:
-        disambig_phone = phone2id["#0"]
+        disambig_token = token2id["#0"]
         disambig_word = word2id["#0"]
         arcs = add_self_loops(
-            arcs,
-            disambig_phone=disambig_phone,
-            disambig_word=disambig_word,
+            arcs, disambig_token=disambig_token, disambig_word=disambig_word,
         )
 
     final_state = next_state
@@ -354,22 +303,22 @@ def lexicon_to_fst(
 def main():
     out_dir = Path("data/lang")
     lexicon_filename = out_dir / "lexicon.txt"
-    sil_phone = "SIL"
+    sil_token = "SIL"
     sil_prob = 0.5
 
     lexicon = read_lexicon(lexicon_filename)
-    phones = get_phones(lexicon)
+    tokens = get_tokens(lexicon)
     words = get_words(lexicon)
 
     lexicon_disambig, max_disambig = add_disambig_symbols(lexicon)
 
     for i in range(max_disambig + 1):
         disambig = f"#{i}"
-        assert disambig not in phones
-        phones.append(f"#{i}")
+        assert disambig not in tokens
+        tokens.append(f"#{i}")
 
-    assert "<eps>" not in phones
-    phones = ["<eps>"] + phones
+    assert "<eps>" not in tokens
+    tokens = ["<eps>"] + tokens
 
     assert "<eps>" not in words
     assert "#0" not in words
@@ -378,26 +327,26 @@ def main():
 
     words = ["<eps>"] + words + ["#0", "<s>", "</s>"]
 
-    phone2id = generate_id_map(phones)
+    token2id = generate_id_map(tokens)
     word2id = generate_id_map(words)
 
-    write_mapping(out_dir / "phones.txt", phone2id)
+    write_mapping(out_dir / "tokens.txt", token2id)
     write_mapping(out_dir / "words.txt", word2id)
     write_lexicon(out_dir / "lexicon_disambig.txt", lexicon_disambig)
 
     L = lexicon_to_fst(
         lexicon,
-        phone2id=phone2id,
+        token2id=token2id,
         word2id=word2id,
-        sil_phone=sil_phone,
+        sil_token=sil_token,
         sil_prob=sil_prob,
     )
 
     L_disambig = lexicon_to_fst(
         lexicon_disambig,
-        phone2id=phone2id,
+        token2id=token2id,
         word2id=word2id,
-        sil_phone=sil_phone,
+        sil_token=sil_token,
         sil_prob=sil_prob,
         need_self_loops=True,
     )
@@ -406,7 +355,7 @@ def main():
 
     if False:
         # Just for debugging, will remove it
-        L.labels_sym = k2.SymbolTable.from_file(out_dir / "phones.txt")
+        L.labels_sym = k2.SymbolTable.from_file(out_dir / "tokens.txt")
         L.aux_labels_sym = k2.SymbolTable.from_file(out_dir / "words.txt")
         L_disambig.labels_sym = L.labels_sym
         L_disambig.aux_labels_sym = L.aux_labels_sym
diff --git a/egs/librispeech/ASR/local/prepare_lang_bpe.py b/egs/librispeech/ASR/local/prepare_lang_bpe.py
index f70279cf4..0c3e9ede5 100755
--- a/egs/librispeech/ASR/local/prepare_lang_bpe.py
+++ b/egs/librispeech/ASR/local/prepare_lang_bpe.py
@@ -3,9 +3,9 @@
 # Copyright (c)  2021  Xiaomi Corporation (authors: Fangjun Kuang)
 
 """
-This script takes as inputs the following files:
+This script takes as inputs the following two files:
+
     - data/lang/bpe/bpe.model,
-    - data/lang/bpe/tokens.txt (will remove it),
     - data/lang/bpe/words.txt
 
 and generates the following files in the directory data/lang/bpe:
@@ -14,11 +14,11 @@ and generates the following files in the directory data/lang/bpe:
     - lexicon_disambig.txt
     - L.pt
     - L_disambig.pt
-    - phones.txt
+    - tokens.txt
 """
 
 from pathlib import Path
-from typing import Dict, List
+from typing import Dict, List, Tuple
 
 import k2
 import sentencepiece as spm
@@ -28,6 +28,7 @@ from prepare_lang import (
     add_disambig_symbols,
     add_self_loops,
     write_lexicon,
+    write_mapping,
 )
 
 
@@ -48,48 +49,46 @@ def lexicon_to_fst_no_sil(
         A dict mapping words to IDs.
       need_self_loops:
         If True, add self-loop to states with non-epsilon output symbols
-        on at least one arc out of the state.
+        on at least one arc out of the state. The input label for this
+        self loop is `token2id["#0"]` and the output label is `word2id["#0"]`.
     Returns:
       Return an instance of `k2.Fsa` representing the given lexicon.
     """
     loop_state = 0  # words enter and leave from here
-    next_state = 1  # the next un-allocated state, will be incremented as we go.
+    next_state = 1  # the next un-allocated state, will be incremented as we go
 
     arcs = []
 
-    assert token2id["<blank>"] == 0
+    # The blank symbol <blk> is defined in local/train_bpe_model.py
+    assert token2id["<blk>"] == 0
     assert word2id["<eps>"] == 0
 
     eps = 0
 
-    for word, prons in lexicon:
-        assert len(prons) > 0, f"{word} has no pronunciations"
+    for word, pieces in lexicon:
+        assert len(pieces) > 0, f"{word} has no pronunciations"
         cur_state = loop_state
 
         word = word2id[word]
-        prons = [token2id[i] for i in prons]
+        pieces = [token2id[i] for i in pieces]
 
-        for i in range(len(prons) - 1):
-            if i == 0:
-                arcs.append([cur_state, next_state, prons[i], word, 0])
-            else:
-                arcs.append([cur_state, next_state, prons[i], eps, 0])
+        for i in range(len(pieces) - 1):
+            w = word if i == 0 else eps
+            arcs.append([cur_state, next_state, pieces[i], w, 0])
 
             cur_state = next_state
             next_state += 1
 
-        # now for the last phone of this word
-        i = len(prons) - 1
+        # now for the last piece of this word
+        i = len(pieces) - 1
         w = word if i == 0 else eps
-        arcs.append([cur_state, loop_state, prons[i], w, 0])
+        arcs.append([cur_state, loop_state, pieces[i], w, 0])
 
     if need_self_loops:
-        disambig_phone = token2id["#0"]
+        disambig_token = token2id["#0"]
         disambig_word = word2id["#0"]
         arcs = add_self_loops(
-            arcs,
-            disambig_phone=disambig_phone,
-            disambig_word=disambig_word,
+            arcs, disambig_token=disambig_token, disambig_word=disambig_word,
         )
 
     final_state = next_state
@@ -105,7 +104,9 @@ def lexicon_to_fst_no_sil(
     return fsa
 
 
-def generate_lexicon(model_file: str, words: List[str]) -> Lexicon:
+def generate_lexicon(
+    model_file: str, words: List[str]
+) -> Tuple[Lexicon, Dict[str, int]]:
     """Generate a lexicon from a BPE model.
 
     Args:
@@ -114,8 +115,10 @@ def generate_lexicon(model_file: str, words: List[str]) -> Lexicon:
       words:
         A list of strings representing words.
     Returns:
-      Return a dict whose keys are words and values are the corresponding
-      word pieces.
+      Return a tuple with two elements:
+        - A dict whose keys are words and values are the corresponding
+          word pieces.
+        - A dict representing the token symbol, mapping from tokens to IDs.
     """
     sp = spm.SentencePieceProcessor()
     sp.load(str(model_file))
@@ -126,8 +129,14 @@ def generate_lexicon(model_file: str, words: List[str]) -> Lexicon:
     for word, pieces in zip(words, words_pieces):
         lexicon.append((word, pieces))
 
-    lexicon.append(("<UNK>", ["<UNK>"]))
-    return lexicon
+    # The OOV word is <UNK>
+    lexicon.append(("<UNK>", [sp.id_to_piece(sp.unk_id())]))
+
+    token2id: Dict[str, int] = dict()
+    for i in range(sp.vocab_size()):
+        token2id[sp.id_to_piece(i)] = i
+
+    return lexicon, token2id
 
 
 def main():
@@ -143,34 +152,28 @@ def main():
         if w in words:
             words.remove(w)
 
-    lexicon = generate_lexicon(model_file, words)
-
-    # TODO(fangjun): Remove tokens.txt and generate it from the model directly.
-    #
-    # We are using it since the IDs we are using in tokens.txt is
-    # different from the one contained in the model
-    token_sym_table = k2.SymbolTable.from_file(lang_dir / "tokens.txt")
+    lexicon, token_sym_table = generate_lexicon(model_file, words)
 
     lexicon_disambig, max_disambig = add_disambig_symbols(lexicon)
 
+    next_token_id = max(token_sym_table.values()) + 1
     for i in range(max_disambig + 1):
         disambig = f"#{i}"
         assert disambig not in token_sym_table
-        token_sym_table.add(f"#{i}")
+        token_sym_table[disambig] = next_token_id
+        next_token_id += 1
 
     word_sym_table.add("#0")
     word_sym_table.add("<s>")
     word_sym_table.add("</s>")
 
-    token_sym_table.to_file(lang_dir / "phones.txt")
+    write_mapping(lang_dir / "tokens.txt", token_sym_table)
 
     write_lexicon(lang_dir / "lexicon.txt", lexicon)
     write_lexicon(lang_dir / "lexicon_disambig.txt", lexicon_disambig)
 
     L = lexicon_to_fst_no_sil(
-        lexicon,
-        token2id=token_sym_table,
-        word2id=word_sym_table,
+        lexicon, token2id=token_sym_table, word2id=word_sym_table,
     )
 
     L_disambig = lexicon_to_fst_no_sil(
@@ -184,7 +187,7 @@ def main():
 
     if False:
         # Just for debugging, will remove it
-        L.labels_sym = k2.SymbolTable.from_file(lang_dir / "phones.txt")
+        L.labels_sym = k2.SymbolTable.from_file(lang_dir / "tokens.txt")
         L.aux_labels_sym = k2.SymbolTable.from_file(lang_dir / "words.txt")
         L_disambig.labels_sym = L.labels_sym
         L_disambig.aux_labels_sym = L.aux_labels_sym
diff --git a/egs/librispeech/ASR/local/train_bpe_model.py b/egs/librispeech/ASR/local/train_bpe_model.py
new file mode 100755
index 000000000..b5c6c7541
--- /dev/null
+++ b/egs/librispeech/ASR/local/train_bpe_model.py
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env python3
+
+"""
+This script takes as input "data/lang/bpe/train.txt"
+and generates "data/lang/bpe/bep.model".
+"""
+
+# You can install sentencepiece via:
+#
+#  pip install sentencepiece
+#
+# Due to an issue reported in
+# https://github.com/google/sentencepiece/pull/642#issuecomment-857972030
+#
+# Please install a version >=0.1.96
+
+from pathlib import Path
+
+import sentencepiece as spm
+
+import shutil
+
+
+def main():
+    model_type = "unigram"
+    vocab_size = 5000
+    model_prefix = f"data/lang/bpe/{model_type}_{vocab_size}"
+    train_text = "data/lang/bpe/train.txt"
+    character_coverage = 1.0
+    input_sentence_size = 100000000
+
+    user_defined_symbols = ["<blk>", "<sos/eos>"]
+    unk_id = len(user_defined_symbols)
+    # Note: unk_id is fixed to 2.
+    # If you change it, you should also change other
+    # places that are using it.
+
+    model_file = Path(model_prefix + ".model")
+    if not model_file.is_file():
+        spm.SentencePieceTrainer.train(
+            input=train_text,
+            vocab_size=vocab_size,
+            model_type=model_type,
+            model_prefix=model_prefix,
+            input_sentence_size=input_sentence_size,
+            character_coverage=character_coverage,
+            user_defined_symbols=user_defined_symbols,
+            unk_id=unk_id,
+            bos_id=-1,
+            eos_id=-1,
+        )
+
+    sp = spm.SentencePieceProcessor(model_file=str(model_file))
+    vocab_size = sp.vocab_size()
+
+    shutil.copyfile(model_file, "data/lang/bpe/bpe.model")
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    main()
diff --git a/egs/librispeech/ASR/prepare.sh b/egs/librispeech/ASR/prepare.sh
index b73d0e71f..406527b71 100755
--- a/egs/librispeech/ASR/prepare.sh
+++ b/egs/librispeech/ASR/prepare.sh
@@ -10,14 +10,20 @@ stop_stage=100
 
 mkdir -p data
 
+log() {
+  # This function is from espnet
+  local fname=${BASH_SOURCE[1]##*/}
+  echo -e "$(date '+%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S') (${fname}:${BASH_LINENO[0]}:${FUNCNAME[1]}) $*"
+}
+
 if [ $stage -le -1 ] && [ $stop_stage -ge -1 ]; then
-  echo "stage -1: Download LM"
+  log "stage -1: Download LM"
   mkdir -p data/lm
   ./local/download_lm.py
 fi
 
 if [ $stage -le 0 ] && [ $stop_stage -ge 0 ]; then
-  echo "stage 0: Download data"
+  log "stage 0: Download data"
 
   # If you have pre-downloaded it to /path/to/LibriSpeech,
   # you can create a symlink
@@ -49,7 +55,7 @@ if [ $stage -le 0 ] && [ $stop_stage -ge 0 ]; then
 fi
 
 if [ $stage -le 1 ] && [ $stop_stage -ge 1 ]; then
-  echo "Stage 1: Prepare librispeech manifest"
+  log "Stage 1: Prepare librispeech manifest"
   # We assume that you have downloaded the librispeech corpus
   # to data/LibriSpeech
   mkdir -p data/manifests
@@ -57,7 +63,7 @@ if [ $stage -le 1 ] && [ $stop_stage -ge 1 ]; then
 fi
 
 if [ $stage -le 2 ] && [ $stop_stage -ge 2 ]; then
-  echo "Stage 2: Prepare musan manifest"
+  log "Stage 2: Prepare musan manifest"
   # We assume that you have downloaded the musan corpus
   # to data/musan
   mkdir -p data/manifests
@@ -65,19 +71,19 @@ if [ $stage -le 2 ] && [ $stop_stage -ge 2 ]; then
 fi
 
 if [ $stage -le 3 ] && [ $stop_stage -ge 3 ]; then
-  echo "Stage 3: Compute fbank for librispeech"
+  log "Stage 3: Compute fbank for librispeech"
   mkdir -p data/fbank
   ./local/compute_fbank_librispeech.py
 fi
 
 if [ $stage -le 4 ] && [ $stop_stage -ge 4 ]; then
-  echo "Stage 4: Compute fbank for musan"
+  log "Stage 4: Compute fbank for musan"
   mkdir -p data/fbank
   ./local/compute_fbank_musan.py
 fi
 
 if [ $stage -le 5 ] && [ $stop_stage -ge 5 ]; then
-  echo "Stage 5: Prepare phone based lang"
+  log "Stage 5: Prepare phone based lang"
   # TODO: add BPE based lang
   mkdir -p data/lang
 
@@ -85,21 +91,37 @@ if [ $stage -le 5 ] && [ $stop_stage -ge 5 ]; then
     cat - data/lm/librispeech-lexicon.txt |
     sort | uniq > data/lang/lexicon.txt
 
-  ./local/prepare_lang.py
+  if [ ! -f data/lang/L_disambig.pt ]; then
+    ./local/prepare_lang.py
+  fi
 fi
 
 if [ $stage -le 6 ] && [ $stop_stage -ge 6 ]; then
-  echo "State 6: Prepare BPE based lang"
+  log "State 6: Prepare BPE based lang"
   mkdir -p data/lang/bpe
   cp data/lang/words.txt data/lang/bpe/
 
+  if [ ! -f data/lang/bpe/train.txt ]; then
+    log "Generate data for BPE training"
+    files=$(
+      find "data/LibriSpeech/train-clean-100" -name "*.trans.txt"
+      find "data/LibriSpeech/train-clean-360" -name "*.trans.txt"
+      find "data/LibriSpeech/train-other-500" -name "*.trans.txt"
+    )
+    for f in ${files[@]}; do
+      cat $f | cut -d " " -f 2-
+    done > data/lang/bpe/train.txt
+  fi
+
+  python3 ./local/train_bpe_model.py
+
   if [ ! -f data/lang/bpe/L_disambig.pt ]; then
     ./local/prepare_lang_bpe.py
   fi
 fi
 
 if [ $stage -le 7 ] && [ $stop_stage -ge 7 ]; then
-  echo "Stage 7: Prepare G"
+  log "Stage 7: Prepare G"
   # We assume you have install kaldilm, if not, please install
   # it using: pip install kaldilm
 
@@ -123,6 +145,6 @@ if [ $stage -le 7 ] && [ $stop_stage -ge 7 ]; then
 fi
 
 if [ $stage -le 8 ] && [ $stop_stage -ge 8 ]; then
-  echo "Stage 8: Compile HLG"
+  log "Stage 8: Compile HLG"
   python3 ./local/compile_hlg.py
 fi
diff --git a/egs/librispeech/ASR/tdnn_lstm_ctc/decode.py b/egs/librispeech/ASR/tdnn_lstm_ctc/decode.py
index 2a29190c9..2c45b4e31 100755
--- a/egs/librispeech/ASR/tdnn_lstm_ctc/decode.py
+++ b/egs/librispeech/ASR/tdnn_lstm_ctc/decode.py
@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ def get_params() -> AttributeDict:
             #  - nbest
             #  - nbest-rescoring
             #  - whole-lattice-rescoring
-            "method": "whole-lattice-rescoring",
+            "method": "1best",
             # num_paths is used when method is "nbest" and "nbest-rescoring"
             "num_paths": 30,
         }
@@ -173,7 +173,7 @@ def decode_one_batch(
             )
             key = f"no_rescore-{params.num_paths}"
         hyps = get_texts(best_path)
-        hyps = [[lexicon.words[i] for i in ids] for ids in hyps]
+        hyps = [[lexicon.word_table[i] for i in ids] for ids in hyps]
         return {key: hyps}
 
     assert params.method in ["nbest-rescoring", "whole-lattice-rescoring"]
@@ -196,7 +196,7 @@ def decode_one_batch(
     ans = dict()
     for lm_scale_str, best_path in best_path_dict.items():
         hyps = get_texts(best_path)
-        hyps = [[lexicon.words[i] for i in ids] for ids in hyps]
+        hyps = [[lexicon.word_table[i] for i in ids] for ids in hyps]
         ans[lm_scale_str] = hyps
     return ans
 
diff --git a/icefall/bpe_graph_compiler.py b/icefall/bpe_graph_compiler.py
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..e22cf4edc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/icefall/bpe_graph_compiler.py
@@ -0,0 +1,74 @@
+from pathlib import Path
+from typing import List, Union
+
+import k2
+import sentencepiece as spm
+import torch
+
+
+class BpeCtcTrainingGraphCompiler(object):
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        lang_dir: Path,
+        device: Union[str, torch.device] = "cpu",
+        sos_token: str = "<sos/eos>",
+        eos_token: str = "<sos/eos>",
+    ) -> None:
+        """
+        Args:
+          lang_dir:
+            This directory is expected to contain the following files:
+
+                - bpe.model
+                - words.txt
+          device:
+            It indicates CPU or CUDA.
+          sos_token:
+            The word piece that represents sos.
+          eos_token:
+            The word piece that represents eos.
+        """
+        lang_dir = Path(lang_dir)
+        model_file = lang_dir / "bpe.model"
+        sp = spm.SentencePieceProcessor()
+        sp.load(str(model_file))
+        self.sp = sp
+        self.word_table = k2.SymbolTable.from_file(lang_dir / "words.txt")
+        self.device = device
+
+        self.sos_id = self.sp.piece_to_id(sos_token)
+        self.eos_id = self.sp.piece_to_id(eos_token)
+
+        assert self.sos_id != self.sp.unk_id()
+        assert self.eos_id != self.sp.unk_id()
+
+    def texts_to_ids(self, texts: List[str]) -> List[List[int]]:
+        """Convert a list of texts to a list-of-list of piece IDs.
+
+        Args:
+          texts:
+            It is a list of strings. Each string consists of space(s)
+            separated words. An example containing two strings is given below:
+
+                ['HELLO ICEFALL', 'HELLO k2']
+        Returns:
+          Return a list-of-list of piece IDs.
+        """
+        return self.sp.encode(texts, out_type=int)
+
+    def compile(
+        self, piece_ids: List[List[int]], modified: bool = False,
+    ) -> k2.Fsa:
+        """Build a ctc graph from a list-of-list piece IDs.
+
+        Args:
+          piece_ids:
+            It is a list-of-list integer IDs.
+         modified:
+           See :func:`k2.ctc_graph` for its meaning.
+        Return:
+          Return an FsaVec, which is the result of composing a
+          CTC topology with linear FSAs constructed from the given
+          piece IDs.
+        """
+        return k2.ctc_graph(piece_ids, modified=modified, device=self.device)
diff --git a/icefall/graph_compiler.py b/icefall/graph_compiler.py
index 8d5d136b7..f7ba3cdaf 100644
--- a/icefall/graph_compiler.py
+++ b/icefall/graph_compiler.py
@@ -8,10 +8,7 @@ from icefall.lexicon import Lexicon
 
 class CtcTrainingGraphCompiler(object):
     def __init__(
-        self,
-        lexicon: Lexicon,
-        device: torch.device,
-        oov: str = "<UNK>",
+        self, lexicon: Lexicon, device: torch.device, oov: str = "<UNK>",
     ):
         """
         Args:
@@ -26,11 +23,11 @@ class CtcTrainingGraphCompiler(object):
         L_inv = lexicon.L_inv.to(device)
         assert L_inv.requires_grad is False
 
-        assert oov in lexicon.words
+        assert oov in lexicon.word_table
 
         self.L_inv = k2.arc_sort(L_inv)
-        self.oov_id = lexicon.words[oov]
-        self.words = lexicon.words
+        self.oov_id = lexicon.word_table[oov]
+        self.word_table = lexicon.word_table
 
         max_token_id = max(lexicon.tokens)
         ctc_topo = k2.ctc_topo(max_token_id, modified=False)
@@ -90,8 +87,8 @@ class CtcTrainingGraphCompiler(object):
         for text in texts:
             word_ids = []
             for word in text.split(" "):
-                if word in self.words:
-                    word_ids.append(self.words[word])
+                if word in self.word_table:
+                    word_ids.append(self.word_table[word])
                 else:
                     word_ids.append(self.oov_id)
             word_ids_list.append(word_ids)
diff --git a/icefall/lexicon.py b/icefall/lexicon.py
index 46cea1941..3b52c70c9 100644
--- a/icefall/lexicon.py
+++ b/icefall/lexicon.py
@@ -1,12 +1,65 @@
 import logging
 import re
 from pathlib import Path
-from typing import List
+from typing import List, Tuple, Union
 
 import k2
 import torch
 
 
+def read_lexicon(filename: str) -> List[Tuple[str, List[str]]]:
+    """Read a lexicon from `filename`.
+
+    Each line in the lexicon contains "word p1 p2 p3 ...".
+    That is, the first field is a word and the remaining
+    fields are tokens. Fields are separated by space(s).
+
+    Args:
+      filename:
+        Path to the lexicon.txt
+
+    Returns:
+      A list of tuples., e.g., [('w', ['p1', 'p2']), ('w1', ['p3, 'p4'])]
+    """
+    ans = []
+
+    with open(filename, "r", encoding="utf-8") as f:
+        whitespace = re.compile("[ \t]+")
+        for line in f:
+            a = whitespace.split(line.strip(" \t\r\n"))
+            if len(a) == 0:
+                continue
+
+            if len(a) < 2:
+                print(f"Found bad line {line} in lexicon file {filename}")
+                print("Every line is expected to contain at least 2 fields")
+                sys.exit(1)
+            word = a[0]
+            if word == "<eps>":
+                print(f"Found bad line {line} in lexicon file {filename}")
+                print("<eps> should not be a valid word")
+                sys.exit(1)
+
+            tokens = a[1:]
+            ans.append((word, tokens))
+
+    return ans
+
+
+def write_lexicon(filename: str, lexicon: List[Tuple[str, List[str]]]) -> None:
+    """Write a lexicon to a file.
+
+    Args:
+      filename:
+        Path to the lexicon file to be generated.
+      lexicon:
+        It can be the return value of :func:`read_lexicon`.
+    """
+    with open(filename, "w", encoding="utf-8") as f:
+        for word, tokens in lexicon:
+            f.write(f"{word} {' '.join(tokens)}\n")
+
+
 class Lexicon(object):
     """Phone based lexicon.
 
@@ -14,14 +67,14 @@ class Lexicon(object):
     """
 
     def __init__(
-        self, lang_dir: Path, disambig_pattern: str = re.compile(r"^#\d+$")
+        self, lang_dir: Path, disambig_pattern: str = re.compile(r"^#\d+$"),
     ):
         """
         Args:
           lang_dir:
             Path to the lang director. It is expected to contain the following
             files:
-                - phones.txt
+                - tokens.txt
                 - words.txt
                 - L.pt
             The above files are produced by the script `prepare.sh`. You
@@ -30,11 +83,11 @@ class Lexicon(object):
             It contains the pattern for disambiguation symbols.
         """
         lang_dir = Path(lang_dir)
-        self.phones = k2.SymbolTable.from_file(lang_dir / "phones.txt")
-        self.words = k2.SymbolTable.from_file(lang_dir / "words.txt")
+        self.token_table = k2.SymbolTable.from_file(lang_dir / "tokens.txt")
+        self.word_table = k2.SymbolTable.from_file(lang_dir / "words.txt")
 
         if (lang_dir / "Linv.pt").exists():
-            logging.info("Loading pre-compiled Linv.pt")
+            logging.info(f"Loading pre-compiled {lang_dir}/Linv.pt")
             L_inv = k2.Fsa.from_dict(torch.load(lang_dir / "Linv.pt"))
         else:
             logging.info("Converting L.pt to Linv.pt")
@@ -49,18 +102,92 @@ class Lexicon(object):
 
     @property
     def tokens(self) -> List[int]:
-        """Return a list of phone IDs excluding those from
+        """Return a list of token IDs excluding those from
         disambiguation symbols.
 
         Caution:
-          0 is not a phone ID so it is excluded from the return value.
+          0 is not a token ID so it is excluded from the return value.
         """
-        symbols = self.phones.symbols
+        symbols = self.token_table.symbols
         ans = []
         for s in symbols:
             if not self.disambig_pattern.match(s):
-                ans.append(self.phones[s])
+                ans.append(self.token_table[s])
         if 0 in ans:
             ans.remove(0)
         ans.sort()
         return ans
+
+
+class BpeLexicon(Lexicon):
+    def __init__(
+        self, lang_dir: Path, disambig_pattern: str = re.compile(r"^#\d+$"),
+    ):
+        """
+        Refer to the help information in Lexicon.__init__.
+        """
+        super().__init__(lang_dir=lang_dir, disambig_pattern=disambig_pattern)
+
+        self.ragged_lexicon = self.convert_lexicon_to_ragged(
+            lang_dir / "lexicon.txt"
+        )
+
+    def convert_lexicon_to_ragged(self, filename: str) -> k2.RaggedInt:
+        """Read a BPE lexicon from file and convert it to a
+        k2 ragged tensor.
+
+        Args:
+          filename:
+            Filename of the BPE lexicon, e.g., data/lang/bpe/lexicon.txt
+        Returns:
+          A k2 ragged tensor with two axes [word_id]
+        """
+        disambig_id = self.word_table["#0"]
+        # We reuse the same words.txt from the phone based lexicon
+        # so that we can share the same G.fst. Here, we have to
+        # exclude some words present only in the phone based lexicon.
+        excluded_words = ["<eps>", "!SIL", "<SPOKEN_NOISE>"]
+
+        # epsilon is not a word, but it occupies on position
+        #
+        row_splits = [0]
+        token_ids = []
+
+        lexicon = read_lexicon(filename)
+        lexicon = dict(lexicon)
+
+        for i in range(disambig_id):
+            w = self.word_table[i]
+            if w in excluded_words:
+                row_splits.append(row_splits[-1])
+                continue
+            pieces = lexicon[w]
+            piece_ids = [self.token_table[k] for k in pieces]
+
+            row_splits.append(row_splits[-1] + len(piece_ids))
+            token_ids.extend(piece_ids)
+
+        cached_tot_size = row_splits[-1]
+        row_splits = torch.tensor(row_splits, dtype=torch.int32)
+
+        shape = k2.ragged.create_ragged_shape2(
+            row_splits=row_splits, cached_tot_size=cached_tot_size
+        )
+        values = torch.tensor(token_ids, dtype=torch.int32)
+
+        return k2.RaggedInt(shape, values)
+
+    def words_to_piece_ids(self, words: List[str]) -> k2.RaggedInt:
+        """Convert a list of words to a ragged tensor contained
+        word piece IDs.
+        """
+        word_ids = [self.word_table[w] for w in words]
+        word_ids = torch.tensor(word_ids, dtype=torch.int32)
+
+        ragged, _ = k2.ragged.index(
+            self.ragged_lexicon,
+            indexes=word_ids,
+            need_value_indexes=False,
+            axis=0,
+        )
+        return ragged
diff --git a/test/test_bpe_graph_compiler.py b/test/test_bpe_graph_compiler.py
new file mode 100755
index 000000000..7b941e5a7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test/test_bpe_graph_compiler.py
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env python3
+
+# Copyright (c)  2021  Xiaomi Corporation (authors: Fangjun Kuang)
+
+from icefall.bpe_graph_compiler import BpeCtcTrainingGraphCompiler
+from icefall.lexicon import BpeLexicon
+from pathlib import Path
+
+
+def test():
+    lang_dir = Path("data/lang/bpe")
+    if not lang_dir.is_dir():
+        return
+    # TODO: generate data for testing
+
+    compiler = BpeCtcTrainingGraphCompiler(lang_dir)
+    ids = compiler.texts_to_ids(["HELLO", "WORLD ZZZ"])
+    fsa = compiler.compile(ids)
+
+    lexicon = BpeLexicon(lang_dir)
+    ids0 = lexicon.words_to_piece_ids(["HELLO"])
+    assert ids[0] == ids0.values().tolist()
+
+    ids1 = lexicon.words_to_piece_ids(["WORLD", "ZZZ"])
+    assert ids[1] == ids1.values().tolist()
diff --git a/test/test_checkpoint.py b/test/test_checkpoint.py
index 7894dc61f..343768957 100644
--- a/test/test_checkpoint.py
+++ b/test/test_checkpoint.py
@@ -41,7 +41,8 @@ def test_load_checkpoints(checkpoints1):
     m.p2 = nn.Parameter(torch.Tensor([0, 0]))
     params = load_checkpoint(checkpoints1, m)
     assert torch.allclose(m.p1, torch.Tensor([10.0, 20]))
-    assert params == {"a": 10, "b": 20}
+    assert params["a"] == 10
+    assert params["b"] == 20
 
 
 def test_average_checkpoints(checkpoints1, checkpoints2):
diff --git a/test/test_graph_compiler.py b/test/test_graph_compiler.py
index a053d5f4d..4083d79ac 100644
--- a/test/test_graph_compiler.py
+++ b/test/test_graph_compiler.py
@@ -81,8 +81,8 @@ def lexicon():
     """
     )
     ans = Lexicon.__new__(Lexicon)
-    ans.phones = L.labels_sym
-    ans.words = L.aux_labels_sym
+    ans.token_table = L.labels_sym
+    ans.word_table = L.aux_labels_sym
     ans.L_inv = k2.arc_sort(L.invert_())
     ans.disambig_pattern = re.compile(r"^#\d+$")
 
@@ -107,11 +107,11 @@ class TestCtcTrainingGraphCompiler(object):
         aux_labels1 = fsa[1].aux_labels[:-1]
         aux_labels1 = aux_labels1[aux_labels1 != 0].tolist()
 
-        labels0 = [lexicon.phones[i] for i in labels0]
-        labels1 = [lexicon.phones[i] for i in labels1]
+        labels0 = [lexicon.token_table[i] for i in labels0]
+        labels1 = [lexicon.token_table[i] for i in labels1]
 
-        aux_labels0 = [lexicon.words[i] for i in aux_labels0]
-        aux_labels1 = [lexicon.words[i] for i in aux_labels1]
+        aux_labels0 = [lexicon.word_table[i] for i in aux_labels0]
+        aux_labels1 = [lexicon.word_table[i] for i in aux_labels1]
 
         assert labels0 == ["b", "a", "r", "f", "o", "o"]
         assert aux_labels0 == ["bar", "foo"]
@@ -129,11 +129,11 @@ class TestCtcTrainingGraphCompiler(object):
         input2 = ["b", "b", "a", "a", "a", "<blk>", "<blk>", "z", "z"]
         input2 += ["<blk>", "<blk>", "SPN", "SPN", "<blk>", "<blk>"]
 
-        lexicon.phones._id2sym[0] == "<blk>"
-        lexicon.phones._sym2id["<blk>"] = 0
+        lexicon.token_table._id2sym[0] == "<blk>"
+        lexicon.token_table._sym2id["<blk>"] = 0
 
-        input1 = [lexicon.phones[i] for i in input1]
-        input2 = [lexicon.phones[i] for i in input2]
+        input1 = [lexicon.token_table[i] for i in input1]
+        input2 = [lexicon.token_table[i] for i in input2]
 
         fsa1 = k2.linear_fsa(input1)
         fsa2 = k2.linear_fsa(input2)
@@ -147,14 +147,14 @@ class TestCtcTrainingGraphCompiler(object):
 
         aux_labels0 = lattice[0].aux_labels[:-1]
         aux_labels0 = aux_labels0[aux_labels0 != 0].tolist()
-        aux_labels0 = [lexicon.words[i] for i in aux_labels0]
+        aux_labels0 = [lexicon.word_table[i] for i in aux_labels0]
         assert aux_labels0 == ["bar", "foo"]
 
         aux_labels1 = lattice[1].aux_labels[:-1]
         aux_labels1 = aux_labels1[aux_labels1 != 0].tolist()
-        aux_labels1 = [lexicon.words[i] for i in aux_labels1]
+        aux_labels1 = [lexicon.word_table[i] for i in aux_labels1]
         assert aux_labels1 == ["baz", "<UNK>"]
 
         texts = get_texts(lattice)
-        texts = [[lexicon.words[i] for i in words] for words in texts]
+        texts = [[lexicon.word_table[i] for i in words] for words in texts]
         assert texts == [["bar", "foo"], ["baz", "<UNK>"]]
diff --git a/test/test_lexicon.py b/test/test_lexicon.py
index b1b823f98..b1284d98a 100644
--- a/test/test_lexicon.py
+++ b/test/test_lexicon.py
@@ -1,10 +1,12 @@
 #!/usr/bin/env python3
 
+from pathlib import Path
+
 import k2
 import pytest
 import torch
 
-from icefall.lexicon import Lexicon
+from icefall.lexicon import BpeLexicon, Lexicon
 
 
 @pytest.fixture
@@ -47,7 +49,7 @@ def lang_dir(tmp_path):
         num_aux_labels=1,
     )
 
-    with open(tmp_path / "phones.txt", "w") as f:
+    with open(tmp_path / "tokens.txt", "w") as f:
         f.write(phone2id)
     with open(tmp_path / "words.txt", "w") as f:
         f.write(word2id)
@@ -60,3 +62,16 @@ def lang_dir(tmp_path):
 def test_lexicon(lang_dir):
     lexicon = Lexicon(lang_dir)
     assert lexicon.tokens == list(range(1, 8))
+
+
+def test_bpe_lexicon():
+    lang_dir = Path("data/lang/bpe")
+    if not lang_dir.is_dir():
+        return
+    # TODO: Generate test data for BpeLexicon
+
+    lexicon = BpeLexicon(lang_dir)
+    words = ["<UNK>", "HELLO", "ZZZZ", "WORLD"]
+    ids = lexicon.words_to_piece_ids(words)
+    print(ids)
+    print([lexicon.token_table[i] for i in ids.values().tolist()])